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Malta - History |
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About 2 million years ago, the
world climate underwent a series of cold-warm periods, which gave rise to
the Ice Ages. These climate fluctuations caused the periodic growth of ice
sheets on land in high latitudes and mountains during the glacial periods,
while the interglacial climate was similar to those prevailing today. The
ice cap during the glacial periods advanced at a rate of 100 m/yr. and has
been estimated to be about 2500 m thick across Europe. The ice cap however
never reached further than 400 latitude and thus the Maltese Islands were
never covered with ice. The regions south to 40o latitude were affected by
pluvial periods, which saw very unsettled weather with increasing rain
precipitation. The Mediterranean region may in fact have been rather arid
during the glacial, increasing in humidity during the interglacial
periods. The cool wetter climate of the pluvial period allowed the
southern extension of the Central European forests of pine, olive,
juniper, cedar and fir. In addition the uptake of water in the increasing
ice cap resulted in a drop in the sea level, estimated at a total drop of
150 m in the Central Mediterranean during the last Ice Age. This sea level
drop was sufficient to expose the submarine ridge of the Central
Mediterranean thus connecting the Maltese Islands to mainland Europe. The
advancing cold weather in Europe also forced the warm-loving animals to
migrate southwards reaching the Maltese Islands. It is estimated that the
Pleistocene period may have undergone a total of about 17 cold periods.
This cycle of mainland connection of the Maltese Islands followed by a
period of isolation allowed for the development of a number of endemic
species which were generally characterised by dwarfism of the herbivore
mammals and gigantism of rodent, reptilian and avian species. Similar
species development has also been reported from other Mediterranean small
islands. GHAR DALAMF, or
generations a grotto not far from the small town known today as Birzebbuga,
was used by shepherds as a sheepfold. Little did they think that a few
feet of earth under their animals' litters hid the very ancient history of
their island? And then, one d ay in 1865, Arthur Issel, an English
scientist, came to the archipelago looking for fossils.
Apart
from confirming certain geological knowledge, the grotto of Ghar Dalam
provided the very oldest evidence of man's presence on the island. The
rock of the Maltese Islands consists of alluvial deposits from the
tertiary era about fifty million years ago. As they hardened, these
deposits imprisoned a vast number of shells, as can be seen from walking
along the seashore, particularly below the cornice at Sliema. A million
years ago, at the beginning of the ice age, gigantic erosion caused by
torrential rains channelled the ground and began to form the relief. Scientists
claim that at this epoch - the Pleistocene - the Maltese Islands were
joined to Sicily and Africa and that the separation from Africa took place
first. It is worth noting that, whereas the sea between the archipelago
and the African continent s sometimes reaches depths of 400 fathoms,
between and Sicily it never exceeds 70 fathoms. At
that time the Mediterranean was a vast pastureland with large trees,
bushes and marshland grass in which birds and other large winged
creatures, freshwater tortoises, elephants, hippopotamus, and many other
vertebrates roamed about in search of food. Excavations
in the grotto of Ghar Dalam, which is about 90 meters long, resulted in
the discovery of an impressive quantity of the remains of animals of all
sorts - herbivora such as antelopes, carnivora such as bears, wolves, and
hyenas, and above all elephant and hippopotamus. The two last-named
species of mammal are distinguished by the fact that they are dwarves; the
smallest is no bigger than a Saint Bernard dog. On the other hand, a swan
of gigantic size was also found. These
astounding discoveries, which are specific to Malta, proved that 250,000
years ago the island was still connected to Sicily but cut off from North
Africa. The remainder of Europe was covered with an ice cap, and in
retreating towards warmer regions the animals had been trapped in this
dead-end. Being unable to reach the further shore, they degenerated for a
large number of generations before becoming finally extinct. It should not
be forgotten that there were elephants in North Africa in Roman times and
lions in the Atlas mountains at the end of the last century. For
along time it was believed that there was proof of the presence on the
island of Neanderthal man, who lived about 100,000 years ago, since human
teeth characteristic of prehistoric man were found in the grotto.
Unfortunately, one day a dentist extracts a tooth form local inhabitant
and found it was exactly the same! The doubts, which then arose, were
later confirmed by modern scientific methods of analysis. Nonetheless,
it was the grotto of Ghar Dalam, which furnished the first irrefutable
evidence of human presence. About 3800 B.C. shepherds, probably from
Sicily, arrived; at all events, their pottery is very similar to that
found at Stentinello near Syracus e. On the other hand, the decoration is
very similar to that used for the pottery of Dalmatia and the eastern
Mediterranean. It is believed that these first inhabitants were also
fishers. Their first homes were the natural grottoes in which this chalky
co entry abounds. By
the end of the 18th century Europe was facing important constitutional
changes, which coincided with the Order's influence being The
Order was passing through a phase of self-appraisal, the result of which
was very disturbing. While
the Knights were not expected to be scholars, they must have been,
nonetheless, influenced by public opinion then currently based on the
works of English philosophers and French encyclopaedists. Against
a possible conception of being considered a Neutral International Force
serving a Supranational Europe, independent of all kingdoms, there existed
some doubts in the mind of younger Knights, especially among the French
regarding their acknowledged notion of double allegiance: the Order and
their country of origin. In
this respect the French considered themselves subjects foremost of their
King and in 1789 when Louis XVI summoned the Third Estate (the commoners)
and had to accept that they would only cooperate by joining the Notables
(i.e. the Clergy and the Nobility) thus forming the National Assembly, the
French Knights became eligible to membership through the three Estates.
The Order in France contributed handsomely to finance the Swedish
Ambassador's preparations for the Royal Family's flight from Paris, which
ended so disastrously at Varennes on 22nd lune 1791; and this
participation could not be overlooked, though the new evolving policies
were not without affecting the old principles. Louis
XVI was executed on 21st January 1793 and the Order held the usual
remembrance service for the loss of a brother sovereign at the
conventual’s church; the Grand Master connived even with the British for
the recruitment of 482 Maltese sailors to serve at Toulon, the British
were occupying this important port with the help of the royalists. The
liberation of Toulon owed much to the strategy of a young Corsican officer
called Napoleon Bonaparte. Et a Malte il fallait vivre.... but it was
extremely difficult for the Order to cover its expenses. Short of its
rents in France where all its properties were nationalised, not much could
be obtained from Spain, Portugal and Italy. Also
in 1793 all that remained of Poland passed mostly to Russia, and the Order
had to provide asylum to many 'emigrés' families of Knights. The
Order had no more resources, and the Maltese were reduced to a condition
of servitude and degradation. The
people felt that the Order's way of government was oppressive and its
absolute rule was greatly resented. The Nobles who never accepted the
Order were resentful of the number of new titles that were created,
reducing their influence. Even the Clergy was antagonistic and without a
bishop from 1775 to 1797. An uprising of the priests led by Dun Gaetan
Mannarino nearly succeeded in 1775. In
effect it was an oligarchy extremely despotic and arrogant, ran by an idle
group of people completely ignoring their vows of chastity and obedience. By
1796 two hundred and sixty six years of rule was nearing its end, except
that it was decided to revive the friendly relations that existed under
Catherine the Great, now that the Polish Priory (established in 1775) was
part of the Russian Empire. Grant Master De Rohan appointed Bailiff Count
Julius Litta as his delegate to Paul I, the new Tsar, to negotiate a deal. The
negotiations were short and favourable. In January 1797 the Tsar converted
the Grand Priory of Poland into a Grand Priory of Russia of six
commanderies, and assumed the titre of 'Protector of the Order'. Unfortunately
the despatch announcing this deal fell into the hands of General Bonaparte
whose troops arrested the bearer at Ancona in February 1797. And it was
the French press which published the news. A fine scoop!.
Two
years later, victory after victory on the battle fields he defeated
Sardinia, Naples, Austria and by the treaty of Campo Fornio (1797) he
brought the Italian campaign to a close, conquering Belgium, the Rhine
Frontier, the Ioanian Islands, Venice, Istria and Dalmatia. England only
remained undefeated ...... and he was only 28. Bonaparte
had no time to waste. He realised that to defeat England he had to attack
her on her own battlefield, and that might be difficult. But why not
attack England in her colonial empire? Not the West Indies, but India
itself. He had dreamed of this project while he was still a Corsican. And
a report from Charles Magellon, the Consul-General of the Republic in
Alexandria, in which he set forth the ease with which Egypt could be
conquered, had just been received. "Why do we not make ourselves
masters of the Island of Malta...." added Bonaparte in a report to
Talleyrand, the French Minster for Foreign Affairs, who agreed with him. Poussielgue,
Secretary of the French Legation, was sent to Malta to contact dissenters
both among the Knights and the people, and Bonaparte continued to
confiscate the Order's properties wherever they were found in the occupied
zones The aim was to increase the discontent in Malta in retaliation for
the pro-royalist policy of the Order, and to promote cordial relations
with Austria and Russia, the two countries which Bonaparte wanted to
prevent capturing the islands for their own interests before France could
act in extending her influence in the Mediterranean. So
while officially the French Army of the West was maintained to prepare the
invasion of Great Britain, vast preparations were undertaken at Toulon,
Civita Vecchia and Genoa for an army towards a destination that was kept
so secret that nobody knew where they were going until well after they had
left the harbours in May 1798. On
9th June 1798, the Army of the East (472 vessels carrying 38,000 men)
appeared off Malta causing surprise and great panic. Hompesch, the new
Grand Master, although aware of the preparations being taken on the
continent, could not believe that Bonaparte would attack Malta. He refused
to listen, and in any case 15,000 men would be required to man all the
fortifications. He could only call on 362 Knights (50 of whom were old and
260 of whom were French - on whose loyalty he could not totally rely) and
some 7000 men and sailors, disorganised, undisciplined and badly officered
ready to believe any cry of treason and Jacobism. Most of the French
Knights were reported infected by the new philosophy. General
Bonaparte introduced himself to the Grand Master by sending his A.D.C.
Chief of Brigade Junot with a letter requesting permission to water the
fleet. Hompesch called a meeting of the Council and the decision was to
remind the General that an old statute prohibited entrance to any of the
ports of Malta during hostilities between Christian nations, of more than
four vessels at a time. At
daybreak of the 10th June, General Bonaparte decided to go in and take
himself the water they refused to give him. He gave the command to land
and his troops disembarked at several points without difficulty as the
small groups of men manning the towers could only offer token resistance.
Only the San Lucian tower at Marsaxlokk held out for 36 hours, and Fort
Tigne garrisoned by the Cacciatori Maltesi under an Anglo-Bavarian Knight,
repulsed twice the French attacks. By
8 o'clock in the morning the whole littoral was in French hands, and by 12
o'clock the keys of Notabile were handed to General Gozo,
abandoned by their French Commander, sent a judge to arrange the terms of
surrender. The
situation was grim, many of the French Knights felt some scruples about
the dual loyalty (in effect 53 afterwards joined the expedition to Egypt).
Maltese troops claimed treachery and intrigue within the Order, and there
was a strong demand from the leaders of the Nobility for a suspension of
hostilities. Hompesch
again called a meeting of the Council to which deputations from the
Maltese Nation claimed admittance. Violent scenes followed and at the end
an armistice for 24 hours was granted during which deputies had to be sent
on board L'Orient to arrange for a capitulation. This was done and
Bonaparte called it a Convention, which included eight articles almost all
of them specifying financial terms for the Knights, confirming the free
exercise of the Catholic religion and assuring retention of all properties
and privileges the Maltese had acquired. All the cities and forts had to
be handed over to the French troops. Bonaparte,
Bosredon Ransijat, five Maltese Deputies, the Ambassador of the King of
the Two Sicilies and Chev signed the Convention. Felipe de Amati. The
reaction amongst the Maltese soldiers was hostile, but at the request of
Bonaparte, Monsignor Labini intervened and all acts of hostility were
avoided. So Bonaparte landed and walked into Valletta, refusing any way of
transport. Later
on, whilst inspecting the military works of Valletta in the company of
General Maximilien de Caffarelli du Falga (known in Egypt as Abouhashab,
the general with the wooden leg), the latter remarked to Bonaparte that
they were most fortunate in finding there was somebody within the City
ready to open the gates for them. The
British Consul, William England, informed his Government on 30th June 1798
of his belief that the Maltese gave the island to the French to get rid of
the Knights which probably was correct. In
any case within six days Bonaparte gave Malta a Constitution, introducing
the Republican trilogy of Liberté, Egalite, Fraternité, abolished
the nobility, replaced the University by a Central High School, added two
battalions of a Garde Nationale to the existing Cacciatori and ordered
sixty boys (aged 9 to 14) of wealthy families to be sent at their expense
to Republican colleges in France. He
introduced civil marriages, compelled all non-Maltese clergymen (including
members of female religious Orders) to leave within ten days, and reduced
the activity of all conventual Orders to have only one convent per Order. He
decided that all articles in gold, silver and precious stones in churches
and auberges were to be transferred to the Army Chest. All precious metal
articles were melted and minted into coins to pay for the army of
occupation. He thus confirmed the legend that 'Le bon Dieu créa
Bonaparte, puis se reposa'. He
left Malta with his army (which then included his Legion Maltaise) with
his fleet on 20th June, leaving General Vaubois in full charge of 3053 men
and five companies of artillery men. However they were unaware that Nelson
was looking for him everywhere. The British Admiral was in Alexandria two
days before the arrival of Bonaparte, and finding that England had no more
a Consulate in Egypt, continued his search elsewhere. It
so happened that for nearly 18 months the Mediterranean had, at that time,
been clear of British ships. But early in 1798 the Admiralty arranged for
Lord St. Vincent to send a reconnoitring squadron under Rear Admiral
Horatio Nelson to collect information as they had grown anxious about the
preparations being made at Toulon and other continental ports controlled
by France. En
route to Toulon, Nelson was caught in a storm losing 8 days repairing his
ships. When he could resume his duties he found that the French had
already left. He immediately started the pursuit touching all possible
ports of call, finally arriving at Naples on 13th June, when Sir William
Hamilton informed him that Bonaparte had gone south, probably to Malta.
Nelson sailed for the Strait of Messina, keeping close to the Sicilian
shore in the hope of information, until the 22nd when the Captain of a
Genoese vessel informed him that Malta had surrendered to the French on
the 15th, and that Bonaparte had left a garrison and sailed again south.
Nelson properly guessed that it might be to Egypt, but arrived there too
early for his final meeting at Aboukir on Ist August when he destroyed the
French Fleet. Meanwhile
in Malta, things were going from bad to worse. Poverty
at that time was almost general. It was recorded that the Capuchins
offered 50 free meals three times a week. This charitable practice was
followed by other monasteries all over the island, and explains one of the
reasons why most Maltese were so ready to turn against the French in
September 1798, following the closure of most monasteries on the island. Vaubois
tried to harmonise the people with the new state of affairs, and the
Maltese were prepared to give a chance to the new order introduced by
Bonaparte to develop into a democratic government. Soon
however they found out that promises were not kept. Family allowances to
(...) the wives of the soldiers and sailors who followed Nelson
properly described the position that, as Baptism was no more used, Vaubois
had sent for all the church plates. News
of Nelson's victory at Aboukir was received in Malta by the end of August.
Three vessels, Guillaume Tell, Diane and Justice that had
escaped, brought the news to Malta. On
2nd September 1798, on bearing that the tapestry and valuables in the
Carmelite Church at Notabile were going to be sold at auction, a hostile
crowd surrounded the Church. The bells were rung as a signal for the
people of Zebbug and Siggiewi to come to the rescue of the Old City, and
when the commandant of the French garrison, Citizen Masson, rode out to
disperse the crowd, he drew his sword and hit a boy who pelted him with
stones. The crowd attacked him and broke into the house where he took
refuge. He was thrown out of the window and death was instantaneous. Messengers
were despatched to all neighbouring villages, announcing the rebellion of
the people of Rabat and asking for assistance. The response was immediate.
Notary Emmanuel Vitale was appointed leader, and the crowd broke into the
armouries of Zebbug and Attard to take possession of the arms. Hearing
the news, Vaubois closed the gates of Valletta and despatched 200 men to
help the garrison of Notabile (The Old City). They were stopped near the
aqueduct and their commander was mortally wounded. Meanwhile,
people of Rabat entered Notabile through a gate by the side of the
Cathedral. The French garrison of 65 men surrendered to them, when four
Maltese were attacked and killed. In revenge all the French troops were
put to death. At
Cospicua the French appeared to hold on, and in Valletta the Maltese Garde
Nationale was disarmed, while the Cacciatori Maltesi in the country joined
the rebellion. A
National Assembly was formed on the 4th September with Manuel Vitale,
Count Manduca, Marquis Depiro, Count Teuma, the battalion commanders from
each village representing their people and, in addition to Canon Francesco
Caruana, the General of the forces of Zebbug and Sigghiewi. This
assembly provided for all the affairs of the islands, both civil and
military. Everywhere the white and red flag of Malta replaced the
tricolore of the Republic On
the 5th September a message was drafted for the King of the Two Sicilies
soliciting his help, requesting grain on credit, firearms and ammunition.
It was to be delivered by Luigi Briffa and Francesco Farrugia who were
also instructed to try to contact Admiral Nelson and deliver to him a
request to blockade the Grand Harbour. Both
missions were accomplished but Nelson was not able to divert any of his
ships to Malta. He directed the Portuguese, under Marquis de Nizza, to go
to Malta with five ships. Within a few days Captain Saumarez joined the
Portuguese for three days and delivered 1062 muskets and ammunition to the
rebels. At their request he summoned Vaubois to surrender to which he
replied with a firm NO and tried a sortie on Corradino, which proved
futile with the loss of many soldiers on 6th October. He then started
expelling Maltese civilians from Valletta to avoid the need to feed them. Nelson
arrived in Malta on 24th October and was preceded by Captain Alexander
Ball, who was to play an important part in supporting and advising the
Maltese and defending their rights whenever necessary. At
that time the Maltese under arms amounted to 3200 badly equipped with guns
and having no bayonets. There were some 6000 to 7000 armed men, some with
pikes, some with swords and others with cudgels. They
needed food, arms, ammunition and clothing. According to Canon Caruana
'disease and death are rife for the want of food. To have any trust in
Sicily appears to be vain'. In this respect Nelson was very surprised
that, in spite of all their promises and confirmations, the Neapolitan
Government had not helped the Maltese either with men, officers or
ammunition. After
more reminders guns and ammunition were received on 6th December. But
after a while King Ferdinand refused not only to send more corn, but
stopped even giving further supplies on credit. On one occasion Commodore
Troubridge, desperate at the sight of the famine around, sent a ship of
war into Girgentu, a Sicilian port, to seize and bring away to Malta two
corn-laden vessels. By
November, 120 French soldiers attempted a second sortie but were driven
back with the loss of 18 men. Reporting this incident to Nelson, Captain
Ball said that the Maltese were very desirous of storming Valletta and in
effect they tried an attack with the co-operation of a group of
sympathisers inside the walls which unfortunately failed. The French shot
46 plotters including Dun Mikiel Xerri, and a Russian Corsair of Corsican
origin Captain Guglielmo Lorenzi. More
tangible assistance from Britain and Sicily was required. After special
requests from Captain Ball and a visit to Minorca by Admiral Nelson,
General Fox, C in C Mediterranean British Forces, instructed Brigadier
Graham, stationed at Messina, to transfer his troops, the 30th and 89th
Regiments, to Malta, together with 500 English and Portuguese marines.
They arrived on 9th December 1799, sixteen months after the Maltese took
up arms against the French. In
addition to these 1300 men, 1200 Neapolitan troops disembarked on 15th
February 1800, and Russia promised 2400 men that never came. However
sickness also spread amongst the English troops, and General Graham
decided to raise a regular regiment of Maltese on British army pay, and
issued the spirited appeal which is reproduced in this Newsletter. Within
a few weeks Graham formed the Maltese Fencible Light Infantry, 800 men to
be officered by the 30th and 89th Regiments. The
besieged French tried, and at times succeeded for some of their vessels to
escape the blockade. More reinforcements (1500 men) arrived from Britain,
and another contingent of Neapolitan troops joined them, to be followed by
the 48th Regiment. Major General Henry Pigot became the Commanding Officer
while Captain Ball looked after the civil administration of the islands. Pigot
offered Vaubois the possibility of surrendering, which was again refused.
However, when two vessels sent from France to relieve his troops were
captured, the French garrison was reduced to bread and water. A decision
was taken to get the Diane and Justice out of the harbour -
the latter escaped but the former was captured. On
the 2nd September 1800 Vaubois and his advisers decided to capitulate. Two
days later a French officer was despatched from Valletta carrying a flag
of truce with a letter to Pigot to send a representative to open
negotiations. Pigot sent Graham and Captain Martin, R.N. causing a protest
from Ball for his exclusion as the representative of the Maltese. Though
the Maltese formed a separate national corps who had besieged the French
without the aid of any foreign troops, Graham feared that he would imperil
the success of the negotiations if he insisted too much. To his credit
however, he did try to get agreement from Vaubois for the Maltese to be
represented by Ball at the signature, but the Frenchman categorically
refused to deal with him or anybody else. So,
on the 5th September 1800, the capitulation document was signed and the
British Fleet entered Grand Harbour. When
Ball drove into Valletta in State, with him were the Captain of the Rod,
the Magistrates, the representatives of the villages, battalion commanders
and all the constituted authorities. A Te Deum was intoned by Monsignor
Labini and sung in St. John's Conventual Church. The next day the gates of
the city were opened for the population to enter. May 1st 2004: Malta people look forward to a better future, since from this day on, Malta is a fully acknowledged member of the EU. |
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reduced to a role of impotence, that of being a simple spectator in the
Mediterranean affairs. The knights no longer were expected - and certainly
they had no more the means - of acting as a barrier to Islam. 
BONAPARTE
... a name that was acquiring celebrity in Europe. Since 1793, when his
services as an Artillery Captain were recognised at Toulon, he had been
rewarded with a promotion to Brigade General, and after saving the
Government by supressing a dangerous riot in Paris in 1794, was appointed
Commander-in-Chief of the Republican Army in Italy.
Vaubois.
Bonaparte were
never paid, and the continued looting of churches and convents alienated
even the most sympathetic supporters. 